UNIX’s User-Centrality

• Users that belong to groups,
• own and access files,
• execute processes to perform tasks on their behalf, and
• control the access rights to those files.

User-centric - programs run on behalf of users, thus can access any of the user’s files!

UNIX Process & Composition Model

Running a UNIX program:

• fork + exec
• ld.so dynamic library loading + sharing → memory saving

Composition on shell:

• pipes + fork + exec

$ echo $PATH | tr : "\n" | wc -l

Everything’s a File

• files
• directories
• /proc/*
• /dev/*
• IPC channels (named pipes + domain sockets)

→ Shell composition of programs can process on all system resources!

→ UNIX APIs for file manipulation manipulate all resources (polymorphism)!

Shared Services w/ setuid Bits

We can use setuid bits to coordinate services that serve multiple users.

• users read files (e.g. /etc/passwd)
• setuid bit programs update files
• services (daemons) consume and act on files

UNIX Security Challenge: root

• root permission is all or nothing
• Particularly susceptible to privilege escalation
• root required for many roles (e.g. chown)

Examples:

• Why is root required for login? Only require 1. access to password file, and 2. ability to setuid to user.
• Why are many of the files in /etc/ owned by root; why are the files in /dev/ all owned by root (e.g. /dev/mem)

UNIX Security Challenge: Unrestricted IPC

Traditional services:

• Daemon that executes periodically, reads configuration/data files
• (setuid) Commands that users run to update configuration/data files

→ Each user (and all of their programs) can interact with the service

Should everyone’s programs be able to interact with core services?

UNIX Security Challenges: DAC

Discretionary Access Control (DAC): Users restrict access to their own files/data, and can indiscriminately pass that privilege.

• Example: students can each decide to share homeworks.

Mandatory Access Control (MAC): Users restricted in sharing files/data by system-wide policies that restrict sharing relationships.

• Example: Policy disallowing students to share homeworks.

UNIX Security Challenge: User-Centric Access

All of a user’s data is accessible to every program they execute. Assume a program will be attacked and compromised. How can we minimize its negative effects?

Principle of least privilege: Only give the access required to accomplish a program’s goals.

Examples:

• Pdf viewer accesses network?
• Browser accesses password file?
• Compiler accesses anything other than code files?

Android’s World View

App-store model is central

• User does not trust an App
• Apps should not trust other Apps

Apps cannot access each other’s resources!

Default: share nothing.

Android’s World View: Files

• Apps cannot have access to each other’s files!
• Apps have their own directories, and no access to other Apps!

App-centric - programs have separate, limited access to files

Android’s World View: IPC

Sensitive resources are not just files

• Camera
• GPS/IMU
• Contacts

Must limit App access to each of these, based on App’s goals/requirements.

By-default deny App access to resources, mediated IPC

Android’s World View: Application-Centric Access

Idea: Apps are not trusted. Isolate them from each other!

They are run by the user, but

• the user doesn’t trust them, and
• they don’t trust each other

Example: Banking App running alongside flashlight app

• Should they execute with access to each other’s data?
• Why can applications not access each other’s files?
• Can any application access any phone resource (e.g. contacts)?

Android: Restrict IPC by Default

Services oversee key abstraction/resources

• Programmable resources, provided by services
• Not just files, provided by the kernel

Resources include

• Contacts
• Screen
• Camera
• Contacts

Only Apps with permissions given by the user should be able to communicate with these services.

UNIX Process Model vs. JVM

UNIX programs:

• fork + exec
• ld.so dynamic library loading

Java VM program execution:

• fork
• Load/init Java language execution program (VM)
• Load dynamic libraries (in classpath)
• Load libraries for java program (imports)
• Execute java program (JIT, GC)

Android: Everything is JVM Execution

An application’s computation is always within a JVM. This means:

• We should optimize for starting an app in a JVM
• JVM is memory-hungry → share as much memory between VMs as possible

JVM-first execution abstractions

Android Architecture

Android Architecture II

Zygote Process Creation I

The Java VM has a huge number of large packages

• essentially similar to dynamic libraries
• expensive: loading them all at App-start time
• expensive: memory replication across Apps/Services

Zygote Process Creation II

Zygote: single process that is the parent of all Apps and Services.

• Loads all java packages into the zygote
• Listens for App/Service-creation requests
• forks the new App/Service
• setuid to the App’s uid (zygote is root)
• Executes App/Service’s java code

Zygote Memory Savings

System & Zygote Bootup

App-Centrality: Application Sandbox

1. Apps have uid/gids, not users
2. Apps have “home directories” for private storage
3. No facilities for filesystem sharing between applications

4. Apps explicitly specify their resource requirements

   • Contacts,
   • networking,
   • Camera, …

Allowing Apps to Access Devices

Apps have a permission manifest: what resources they can access.

• “This app wants access to your Contacts, do you consent?”

<permission name="android.permission.BLUETOOTH" >
    <group gid="net_bt" />
</permission>
<permission name="android.permission.WRITE_MEDIA_STORAGE" >
    <group gid="media_rw" />
    <group gid="sdcard_rw" />
</permission>
<permission name="android.permission.INTERNET" >
    <group gid="inet" />
</permission>

All of the system’s potential permissions.

• For example, the READ_CONTACTS permission

Tracking of Permissions

App and Service permissions are tracked and queried:

• PermissionManager + PackageManager

return AppGlobals.getPackageManager()
    .checkUidPermission(permission, uid);

App Filesystem Access

Applications have access only to a small part of the filesystem

• The uid and gid are a unique, per-app values app_N. I.e. app_6
• /data/app/<app_name>/ binary and “ELF-like” data
• /data/data/<app_name>/ storage

Service-based Coordination

If Apps cannot access each other’s data, how do we have a cohesive, single experience as user?

Our human experience is clicking buttons, and seeing actions. The system need only provide the illusion of a single, shared device.

How?

Service-based Coordination II

Illusion of a single, shared device:

1. Apps communicate to services that provide shared resources

   • windows
   • input (e.g. keyboard)/output (screen)
   • contacts
   • network
   • location
   • …

2. Composition of Apps: communication through intents

   • Talk about this later

User/Group IDs

/* This is the master Users and Groups config for the platform.*/
#define AID_ROOT             0  /* traditional unix root user */
#define AID_SYSTEM        1000  /* system server */
#define AID_RADIO         1001  /* telephony subsystem, RIL */
#define AID_BLUETOOTH     1002  /* bluetooth subsystem */
#define AID_GRAPHICS      1003  /* graphics devices */
#define AID_INPUT         1004  /* input devices */
#define AID_AUDIO         1005  /* audio devices */
#define AID_CAMERA        1006  /* camera devices */
#define AID_LOG           1007  /* log devices */
#define AID_COMPASS       1008  /* compass device */
#define AID_MOUNT         1009  /* mountd socket */
#define AID_WIFI          1010  /* wifi subsystem */
#define ...
#define AID_WEBVIEW_ZYGOTE 1053 /* WebView zygote process */
/* The 3000 series are intended for use as supplemental group id's only*/
#define AID_NET_BT_ADMIN  3001  /* bluetooth: create any socket */
#define AID_NET_BT        3002  /* bluetooth: create sco, rfcomm, ... */
#define AID_APP          10000  /* first app user */
#define AID_USER        100000  /* offset for uid ranges for each user */

• 0/1000 - root + System, 1001...1052 - Devices
• 1053 - Zygote, 10000+ - Apps

Binder: Inter-Process Communication

Binder: domain-socket analog for IPC

• Nameserver associates Apps/Services with names
• IPC to those names can mimic function calls

→ cross App/Service “function invocations”

Binder-based IPC

• IPC Connections can be passed to Apps

  • “I want to talk to the location service!”
  • ServiceManager nameserver: “here you go, have this connection”

• uid/gid of Apps using connection can be queried

  • Example: does the App have group AID_INPUT to be able to input?
  • Example: pass uid to Package/PermissionManager: “are they allowed?”

Binder Communication Authentication

Who is making a request to a service? Do they have permissions?

• Connections include pid and euid
• Binder.getCallingPid() & Binder.getCallingUid()
• Trusted authentication of App making request

ActivityManager.checkComponentPermission(permission, uid, owningUid, exported)

ServiceManager: Android Nameserver

android.os.ServiceManager includes:

public static void addService(String name, IBinder service) { /* ... */ }
public static IBinder getService(String name) { /* ... */ }

We can see that at its core, Android has a nameserver to map names to IPC channels.

• Similar to our nameserver creating a domain socket for each server
• Interacts with kernel to enable namespace-driven discovery for Binder

Services (link)

• Location Manager - GPS + IMU
• Package Manager - track code and permissions for Apps
• Account Manager - track user permissions and data
• Power Manager - track/manage power
• Wallpaper Service
• Input/output via Input Manager (manage connection from app to keyboard) and Window Manager (interacts with surfaceflinger to display contents)

Coordination:

• Activity Manager - nameserver to coordinate between Apps/Services

General Communication between Apps

UNIX focuses on pipelines for composition

• streams of text
• read on stdin, output on stdout
• pipes for composition
• using polymorphic read/write calls

Android:

Intents: simple action you’d like to perform, identified by a name

• Activities (link) provide App-based intent implementations
• Services (link) provide “background” intent implementations

Intent-based IPC

Intents

List of default intents. These include:

• Alarm clock operations (setting alarm)
• Calendar (setting/retrieving events)
• Camera (taking pics)
• Contacts (accessing/setting contacts)
• Email (sending)
• File storage (service-provided, not in our local files)
• Text messages (send)
• Web browser (loading URL)

ActivityManager is nameserver for intents

Intent Example: Sent email

// java code to send an email!
public void composeEmail(String[] addresses, String subject, Uri attachment) {
    Intent intent = new Intent(Intent.ACTION_SEND);
    intent.setType("*/*");
    intent.putExtra(Intent.EXTRA_EMAIL, addresses);
    intent.putExtra(Intent.EXTRA_SUBJECT, subject);
    intent.putExtra(Intent.EXTRA_STREAM, attachment);
    if (intent.resolveActivity(getPackageManager()) != null) {
        startActivity(intent);
    }
}

Intents - Mechanism for Launching Apps

1. System starts out by triggering the PRE_BOOT_COMPLETED intent
2. Homescreen App displays homescreen (or “update” might run)
3. Homescreen triggers BOOT_COMPLETED intent
4. Homescreen App detects click → triggers App intent
5. If App is running, pass it the message, otherwise start it!

6. App might trigger many intents

   • INPUT_METHOD_SERVICE to read from onscreen keyboard
   • ACTION_SEND to send email
   • open URL, view pdf, download file, etc…

ActivityManager I

ActivityManager implements this intent system

• a service running inside the SystemServer process
• manages the runtime activities of applications in the system

For functionality: void startActivity (Intent intent)

• find activity/service to handle intent
• check permissions
• ask zygote to start or activate activity/service

Intents - Mechanism for Launching Apps II

ActivityManager Example

• the InputManager multiplexes user input between InputMethods.

  • Think: where are we getting our stdin? Up to the system to decide if stdin is a pipe, or a terminal. Polymorphic!

• InputMethods (link) are things like on-screen keyboards that are Services activated by intents from the InputManager.

  • Provides the INPUT_METHOD_SERVICE intent
  • This class is much like “file descriptor 0”; we know it will give us input.

• App → ActivityManager(INPUT_METHOD_SERVICE) → InputMethod

Intent/Activity Permissions

• Binder provides uid/pid of client
• ActivityManager checks if the client has permissions to access resource/trigger intent
• Will privilege system services and root

ActivityManager II

// frameworks/base/core/java/android/app/ActivityManager.java

public class ActivityManager {
    public static int checkComponentPermission(String permission, int uid,
            int owningUid, boolean exported) {
        final int appId = UserHandle.getAppId(uid);
        if (appId == Process.ROOT_UID || appId == Process.SYSTEM_UID) {
            return PackageManager.PERMISSION_GRANTED;
        }
        if (UserHandle.isIsolated(uid)) {
            return PackageManager.PERMISSION_DENIED;
        }
        if (owningUid >= 0 && UserHandle.isSameApp(uid, owningUid)) {
            return PackageManager.PERMISSION_GRANTED;
        }
        if (!exported) {
            return PackageManager.PERMISSION_DENIED;
        }
        if (permission == null) {
            return PackageManager.PERMISSION_GRANTED;
        }
        try {
            return AppGlobals.getPackageManager()
                .checkUidPermission(permission, uid);
        } catch (RemoteException e) {
            throw e.rethrowFromSystemServer();
        }
    }
}

App-Centric

• A user (uid) for each App/Service
• File system directory per App
• Binder IPC gives us uid/pid of calling App
• Each App has a permission manifest
• Package/PermissionManager lets us query App permissions

→ foundation for per-App access control/privileges

Shared Resources Through Services

• SystemManager nameserver maps unique name to a Service

• Apps use IPC to request resources from Services

  • Contacts
  • Shared documents
  • Hardware (location, screen, networking, etc…)

Everything is App/Service Execution

Zygote as the parent of each App

• pre-loads all class libraries
• a service awaiting App creation requests on a domain socket
• App creation = fork
• uses setuid to restrict App’s privileges

Composition via Intents

Apps and Services are activated by intents.

• Polymorphic

  • Code for homescreen? Provide PRE_BOOT_COMPLETED intent.
  • On-screen keyboard? Provide INPUT_METHOD_SERVICE intent.

• Drives App/Service activation

  • If the intent provide isn’t running, start it!

• Communication driven by the ActivityManager

  • nameserver for intents
  • in some sense, provides similar purpose to the shell

UNIX vs. Android: Access to Resources

UNIX:

• open(Stringpath) → intdescriptor

  • Access check based on uid/gid

• descriptor_table(intdescriptor) → char[]file

UNIX vs. Android: Access to Resources

Android:

• open(Stringpath) → intdescriptor

  • Access check based on uid/gid

• descriptor_table(intdescriptor) → char[]file

and

• ActivityManager(StringIntent) → BinderChannel

  • Permission checking with PackageManager

• BinderChannel(fn, args…) Service

POSIX vs. Android Summary

Android’s UNIX

Similar set of system calls to normal UNIX system…

…augmented with pervasive use of IPC…

…to coordinate between Apps and Services…

…while checking per-App permissions…

…all driven by the special trust relationship of untrusted Apps.